![]() ![]() Examples are structured illumination microscopy (SIM) to examine the actin cytoskeleton, and stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (STORM) for changes in endothelial junction organization and glycocalyx molecular structure. ![]() Now, super-resolution microscopy techniques have opened the possibility of using light microscopy to examine cells, including live cells, at much greater resolution and these methods can be applied to the cerebral endothelium. Many recent advances in brain barrier and brain fluid research have been driven by improvements in imaging. There continue to be advances in the use of iPSCs in engineering a BBB-on-a-chip. Importantly, such organoids can now incorporate a vasculature that is perfused and has BBB characteristics. One use of human iPSCs has been to produce cerebral organoids that have allowed studies of human brain development and the complex interactions between different cell types. The ability to derive multiple cell types from a single donor enables examination of not only the effects of mutations on a single cell type but also on the complete NVU (e.g. Currently, studies are examining the effects of individual patient mutations using iPSC-derived endothelial cells. ) and all four cell types can be produced and co-cultured from the same iPSC donor. Improved methods for producing NVU cells are continuously being developed (e.g. ![]() Methods have now been extended to produce not only iPSC-derived endothelial cells, astrocytes and neurons, but also pericyte-like cells. In the past few years, one major advance has been the introduction of human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) to produce different cell types composing the neurovascular unit (NVU). ![]()
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